Realising that fossil fuels would not last forever, Kazakhstan took steps to diversify its economy. This included a new focus on its tourism industry. Though under-developed, officials knew it was an area that had much to offer.

Europe and Central Asia's economy is forecast to expand 3.9 percent in 2021, stronger than previously forecast, the World Bank said.

The economy is projected to grow by 3.8 percent in 2021 and by 6.4 percent in 2022.

Disputes over water use increased after the collapse of the Soviet Union as countries of the region failed to create an efficient regional approach to replace Soviet-era systems of water management.

Russian companies have for years relied on migrant workers from typically less affluent ex-Soviet states – Armenia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan.